Trade Unions and Black and Minority Ethnic Workers in Scotland
STUC Research
September 2004
The Black and Minority Ethnic Population in Scotland1
It is estimated that trade union membership amongst black and minority ethnic workers in Scotland is low. The Unions Work campaign has, therefore, identified, this group as a key recruitment target for growing the union movement.
The size of the minority ethnic population in Scotland is just over 100,000; this is equivalent to 2% of the total Scottish population. The following table shows the Scottish population broken down by ethnic group.
Table 1: Scottish population by ethnic group % % of total minority Base Population ethnic population White Scottish 88.09 N/a 4,459,071 Other White British 7.38 N/a 373,685 White Irish 0.98 N/a 49,428 Any other White background 1.54 N/a 78,150 Indian 0.30 14.79 15,037 Pakistani 0.63 31.27 31,793 Bangladeshi 0.04 1.95 1,981 Chinese 0.32 16.04 16,310 Other South Asian 0.12 6.09 6,196 Caribbean 0.04 1.75 1,778 African 0.10 5.03 5,118 Black Scottish or any other Black background 0.02 1.11 1,129 Any Mixed Background 0.25 12.55 12,764 Any other background 0.19 9.41 9,571 All minority ethnic population 2.01 100.00 All population 100.00 N/a 5,062,011 Source: Scottish Executive (2004)2
As can be seen, Pakistanis were the largest minority ethnic group, followed by Chinese, Indians and those of Mixed ethnic backgrounds.
The size of the minority ethnic population has increased since the last Census in 1991. While the total population increase between 1991 and 2001 was 1.3%, the minority ethnic population increased by 62.3%3.
The age profile of the Scottish population reveals that minority ethnic groups have a younger age distribution than White groups. This is shown below.
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Figure 1: Age profile by ethnic group
White
Under 16 Indian 16-29 30-49 Pakis tani and other South Asian 50-Pens ionable Age Pens ionable Age-74 Chines e 75 and over
Other
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Census data also reveals that a much higher percentage of people from minority ethnic backgrounds live in large urban area, compared to White people. Only 39% of the total population of Scotland live in large urban areas but for Indians (74%), Pakistanis (80%), Bangladeshi people (76%), Other South Asians (75%) and Africans (74%) the proportions are much higher.
Looking at the percentage of minority ethnic population in each local authority region confirms that minority ethnics tend to be concentrated in large urban areas. Glasgow has the highest percentage of minority ethnic people with 31% of the total minority ethnic population living in the city. Edinburgh follows this with 18%. The lowest concentrations are found in rural areas such as Angus (0.8%) and Orkney Isles (0.1%).
Scotland's BME Population and the Labour Market
Figure 3: Economic Activity Rate4 by Ethnic Group
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0% ALL PEOPLE W hite Indian Pakistani and Chinese Other other South Asian
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As Figure 3 shows White groups in Scotland have a slightly higher than average economic activity rate than all other ethnic groups. Further analysis of Census data shows that employment rates closely follow economic activity rates with employment rates of the White population higher than those for other groups. For many ethnic groups, employment rates struggle to make half of the working age population from this group, such as Other South Asians (46%), Pakistanis (47%) and Bangladeshis (49%). As can be seen from Figure 3, these are also the groups which have low economic activity rates as well.
From this it follows that these groups also have the highest levels of unemployment. In particular, there are considerable differences between those of working age who have never worked. All ethnic groups have a higher proportion of people than the White population who have never worked5. For White groups, less than 10% of the working age population has never worked, with little difference between the sexes. However, there are large differences between the sexes for minority ethnic groups. This is most prominent for Asian groups Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Other South Asian with a much higher proportion of females of working age have never worked. Pakistani women have the highest proportion at 46%.
Comparing industry of employment between White and BME populations also shows some stark contrast in terms of the sectors worked in.
Figure 4: Industry employed, proportion of White and BME in each sector
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BME White
The highest proportion of non-white workers are employed in the retail and hotel and restaurant sectors (22% and 19.8% of black workers respectively). The health and social work sector also employs a large proportion of minority ethnic workers (13.1%) it is thought that black workers in this sector are mainly found in the lower paid jobs which are available. Minority ethnic
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employees are less likely to be found in rural industries such as agriculture, fishing and utilities.
Looking in detail at the different ethnic groups reveals some striking differences between different ethnic groups. In the wholesale and retail sector, 45% of all employed Pakistanis work in this sector compared to just 8% of the Chinese population in Scotland. The highest employment rates in the hotel and restaurant sector are amongst Chinese (51%) and Bangladeshi (45%) groups, whilst only 5% of the White population and 7% of the Caribbean population work in this industry.
Other Characteristics of the Black and Minority Ethnic Population in Scotland
· 7% of the BME population in Scotland are full-time students compared with 4% of the total Scottish population.
· 60% of Chinese and 59% of Pakistani workers are employed in organisations employing less than 9 people (micro-businesses) compared with 28% of White Scottish employees. This large proportion may be explained by the high levels of self-employment within these groups (32% for Pakistanis and 23% for Chinese).
· At least 70% of Pakistanis and Chinese and at least two-thirds of Bangladeshi employees work in small businesses.
· Non-white workers earn 88% of white employees earnings6. Most of this difference is due to different pay rates between white and minority ethnic men. Women from minority ethnic groups earn, on average, roughly the same as white female workers7.
Black and Minority Ethnic Workers and Trade Unions
Figures for black and ethnic minority trade union membership in Scotland are not available. However it seems likely that, with a quarter of non-white people being members of trade unions in the UK, the Scottish figure will be similar or lower, given the proportionally lower ethnic minority population in Scotland. The following table shows UK membership by ethnic group.
Table 2: UK Trade union density by ethnic group All Sex Full time/part time Men Women FT PT All employees 29.3 29.4 29.3 32.3 21.1 Ethnic group White 29.6 29.8 29.4 32.5 21.6 Mixed 20.8 22.7 19.3 24.1 * Asian or Asian 25.5 24.0 27.4 30.0 12.5 British Black or Black 30.1 27.1 32.6 35.0 13.5 British Chinese or 19.3 16.4 22.7 23.0 * other ethnic
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groups Source: Trade Union Membership 2003, DTI Employment Market Analysis and Research *Sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate
This lack of knowledge on the size of black trade union membership in Scotland is discussed later in the analysis of the STUC survey of black activists.
Figures from the DTI suggest that 95% of trade union members in the UK are white8.
As demonstrated above, many black and minority ethnic workers are employed in the retail and hotel and restaurant sectors. These are traditionally two of the less well-unionised sectors of the economy and this may, in part, explain the historically low unionisation rates amongst black workers. The following figure compares trade union density in each industry of the economy with the proportion of BME workers in each industry.
Figure 5: Union density by industry vs. Proportion of BME workers by industry
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% g
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Union Density, UK BME Employment
Source: Trade Union Membership 2003, DTI Employment Market Analysis and Research and Census 2001 data
It is evident that well-unionised sectors of the economy are also those with low levels of BME workers. For example, public administration and education are the two sectors with the highest levels of unionisation; they are also the sectors with amongst the lowest levels of black employees. In contrast, the wholesale and retail and hotel and restaurant sectors are least likely to be unionised.
Further reasons for a low membership amongst black workers may also be linked to the size of workplace. As mentioned earlier, a number of different ethnic groups are predominately employed in small workplaces. Only 8% of those in workplaces of less than 25 people are union members. In Scotland, union density in workplace with less than 50 employees is 25.9% and 45.7% in workplaces over 50. Across the whole of the UK, two thirds of the total number of trade union members are employed in workplaces with over 50 people9. Addressing the challenge of union membership in small workplaces is one of the aims of the Unions Work campaign as 97% of companies in Scotland are small-to-medium enterprises (SMEs). Targeting low
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membership in SMEs may also partly address the issue of low unionisation amongst black workers in Scotland.
Union density in Scotland is highest in the public sector with a density figure of 66%. Private sector union density is 21%. Again, these differences may also explain low black membership. BME workers are less likely to be employed in the public sector industries of education, public administration and health and social work these sectors have the highest union density figures in Scotland. In contrast, retail and hotels and restaurants industries, those industries employing the highest proportions of BME workers, have the lowest unionisation rates.
Unions Work for Black Workers
It is reasonable to suggest that the benefits of trade unionism as identified in STUC's Why Unions Work research briefing also apply to BME members. However, there has been little research into the benefits of unionism for black members. The available evidence suggests that unionism is particularly useful to black and minority ethnic members for two main reasons.
Firstly, evidence suggests that unions have had success in reducing the pay gap between white and non-white workers. A recent survey found that the mean hourly wage for white members was £8.93 and £8.91 for BME members. However, for those who are not unionised, white workers earn £7.77 with non- white workers falling to £6.95 per hour10. Furthermore, the wage structure would be 1.4% wider in the absence of unions and 3.35 wider if there was no collective bargaining.
Secondly, equal opportunities policies are more prevalent in unionised workplaces. Twice as many workplaces have an equal opportunities policy covering ethnic minorities as those which are non-unionised. 71% of unionised workplaces have a policy covering religion compared to just 34% of those without a union presence11. Ethnic monitoring is also more common in workplaces with union recognition. Also, 20% of union recognised workplaces have special procedures to encourage applications from minority ethnic groups. This is compared to 5% of non-unionised workplaces.
Tackling low membership and participation
This research has identified a number of possible explanations for low union membership amongst black and minority ethnic workers in Scotland:
· Proportionately low minority ethnic population in Scotland concentrated mainly in highly urbanised areas
· Lower economic inactivity rates
· More likely to be employed in low unionised sectors of the economy
· Less likely to work in the public sector
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· High proportions of certain minority ethnic groups are employed in small businesses.
The STUC are particularly interested as to how, through our Unions Work campaign, we can encourage more black and minority ethnic workers to become union members. On this basis, we undertook a survey of a sample of black trade union activists in Scotland to look at the reasons why BME workers join unions and the role unions can play in bringing the BME agenda into mainstream union activities.
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Analysis of STUC's widening representation amongst black and minority ethnic members survey
A number of surveys have looked at the reasons why people join and stay in trade unions.
The broad category of "support if I had a problem at work" is, overwhelmingly, the most popular reason given for trade union membership. "Improved pay and conditions" is the next most significant factor with a general "belief" in trade unions; "free legal advice"; and "most people at work are members" also being given as key reasons.
Table 3: Reasons for Joining a Union Rank order Reason for joining % 1 Support if I had a problem at work 72.1 2 Improved pay and conditions 36.4 3 Because I believe in TUs 16.2 4 Free legal advice 15.1 5 Most people at work are members 13.8 6 Professional services 6.2 7 Training and education 5.0 8 Industrial benefits 4.4 9 Financial services 3.5 Other reasons 6.9 Source: Adapted from Waddington and Whitson12
The STUC has undertaken similar surveys amongst different groups of its membership. Below is a table comparing the answers received from trade unionists in the Highlands and Islands, Scottish female trade unionists and black and other minority ethnic members.
Table 4: Reasons for joining; results of STUC survey Rank Highlands and Islands Women trade unionists Black and minority order trade unionists ethnic trade unionists 1 Support if I had a Support if I had a Legal problem at work problem at work advice/representation 2 Improved pay and Health and safety Support if I had a conditions issues problem at work 3 Legal advice and Campaigning & Campaigning & representation support by TUs on support by TUs on equality issues equality issues 4 Health and safety issues Improved pay and Improved pay and conditions conditions 5 Most people at work are members Because I believe in TUs Because I believe in TUs 6 Because I believe in TUs Legal Health and safety advice/representation issues 7 Training and education Most people at work are members Training and education 8 Professional and other Most people at work membership services are members Training and education
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9 Professional & other Professional & other membership services membership services
In keeping with other surveys, women and Highlands & Islands (H&I) trade unionists place "Support if I had a problem at work" as the top reason for joining a union. However, black and minority ethnic (BME) members rate this as the second most important reason for joining a trade union. This group has placed more emphasis on "legal advice/representation". BME workers rate this category higher than any other groups suggesting that black and minority ethnic workers may feel that trade unions would provide a high level of support if they needed to access these services for tribunals or other discrimination cases advice.
For the women and BME surveys, the STUC introduced an additional category of "campaigning and support by trade unions on equality issues", which both groups gave great weight to. Both women and black trade unionists gave less importance to improved pay and conditions suggesting that equality and fairness at work are the key priorities for these groups.
The STUC survey also asked the black and minority ethnic trade unionists to rate some key union priorities.
Table 5: Black and minority ethnic trade unionists rating of key union priorities Union Priorities (BEM) % Challenging racial discrimination 94% Campaigning for better pay 88% Challenging age discrimination 88% Challenging disability discrimination 88% Influencing government policies 88% Campaigning for better pensions 81% Campaigning for better working conditions 81% Working for equal opportunities for women 81% Providing legal services/representation 75% Campaigning for better work-life balance/increased flexible working 69% Fighting redundancies 69% Challenging discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation 60% Campaigning for equal treatment for refugees and asylum seekers 53% Campaigning for health and safety 50% Campaigning for increased childcare provision for members 44% Campaigning for time-off for religious/cultural leave 38% Providing education & training 29% Campaigning for religious/cultural observance facilities 25% Organising social events 0%
As might be expected, racial discrimination was the most important union priority for this group. However, they also rate other forms of discrimination age, disability, equal opportunities for women highly. This suggests that black and minority ethnic trade unionists would like to see a greater emphasis on a wide anti-discrimination and equality agenda for the trade union movement. This is a positive outcome from the STUC in light of our One Workplace campaign which is aimed at tackling all forms of discrimination in
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the workplace. More details on the One Workplace campaign are provided in the box below.
Box 1: STUC's One Workplace Campaign
One Workplace Equal Rights Reflecting the STUC's commitment to advance equality issues, the One Workplace Equal Rights project aims to promote equality and tackle racism in the workplace by offering support, targeted training and advice to trade union representatives and officials on promoting and bargaining for inclusive work practices. The project forms part of the Scottish Executive's One Scotland Many Cultures initiative and is a development partner of EU Equal SWELL. The project also benefits from the guidance and expertise of its advisory group comprising of equality agencies and equality networks including the Commission for Racial Equality, Equal Opportunities Commission, Disability Rights Commission, Stonewall, Age Concern, Scottish Interfaith Council, TUC Education and Unison.
Research has identified that the workplace is a key area in which racist attitudes can result in discrimination and harassment. More action is required to challenge racism and promote good practice regarding equal opportunities in Scotland's workplaces and trade unions have a key role to play in delivering this agenda. The project has been designed to promote access and raise awareness of both new and existing rights at work aimed to prevent discrimination at work and promote equality to trade unions, employers and employees. This includes the UK Government's implementation of EC Equality Directives of new rights for members relating to race, age, religion, gender and sexual orientation.
Our activities include:
· Free residential training programmes to create Bargaining for Equality Union Reps across Scotland.
· Seminars around Scotland trade unionist on equal opportunities best practice and raising awareness of new rights for members.
· One Workplace Website: online advice, information, toolkits and best practice guidance for trade unions.
· Conduct research to develop effective trade union strategies to promote equality.
· Delivering campaign packs promoting race equality and to over 5,000 workplaces in Scotland.
· One Workplace Hotline: A free phone advice line aimed at trade union workplace reps and officials to offer ongoing support in pursing specific discrimination cases or best practice initiatives for equal opportunities.
By building the capacity of trade unionists that negotiate with employers, we can make a positive case for increasing productivity through better use of human capital
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and more enlightened equal opportunity practices. By moving these issues up the trade union bargaining agenda, we also push them up the employers agenda that enables trade unions to both widen their membership to include more marginalized groups and provide more accessible services to members.
For more information : visit our website on www.oneworkplace.org.uk, call our free phone number 0800 027 6655 or contact Zaffir Hakim, Development Manager, directly on 0141 337 8122
Possibly against expectation, BME trade unionists did not think equal treatment for refugees and asylum seekers, campaigning for time-off for religious/cultural leave and campaigning for religious/cultural observance facilities were key union priorities.
Also against the evidence found from other groups surveyed, black trade unionists have not rated health and safety as union priority. This is something which most other groups have identified as one of the most important contributory factors for joining a union and is increasing in importance to become one of the top campaigning issues for the trade union movement.
Activism, Participation and Involvement
The next section of the STUC survey explored activism and participation amongst black and minority ethnic members and the reasons for this.
The majority of BME members described their highest position within the union as either member (56%) or member of either their own union's or STUC's black workers or racial equality committees (19%). This is in contrast with other surveys where members cite their highest positions as either shop stewards or members of their union's national executive committee. Only 13% of black members were shop stewards in comparison with 28% of women trade unionists. The following table shows the highest union position held by respondents to the STUC survey.
Table 6: Highest union position held Position held % Shop steward 13% Member 56% Branch Treasurer 6% National Black Workers' Committee 13% STUC Race Equality Committee member 6% National Management Committee 6%
Moving on to the reasons why members become active within the union movment.
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Table 5: Reasons for becoming active Rank Make sure BEM groups were represented 1 Wanted to fight racial discrimination in the workplace 2 Problems at work I felt strongly about 3 Thought I would do a good job for members 4 Encouraged to take on the position 5 Interested in being an active trade unionist 6 No one else would take the position 7 Other 8 Could do a better job than current rep 9 Come from a union family background 9
The table shows that major reasons for black members become active are related to addressing the needs of these workers and discrimination in the workplace. Problems at work is ranked as the third reason for activism. This matches earlier evidence from the survey where black and minority ethnic members see equalities and anti-discrimination in the workplace as important. This is in contrast to other groups surveyed who tended to place problems at work at the most important reason.
The STUC survey also asked respondents to provide reasons as to why more black members did not become active. The answers given suggest that firstly, unions are seen as not dealing effectively with BME issues and therefore, are not seen as relevant for these workers and secondly, black workers feel there is little encouragement for them to become active within the union movement.
Table 7: Reasons for BME members not to becoming active with trade unions Rank Unions seen as not dealing effectively with BME issues 1 Not enough encouragement for BME members to become active 2 No time off for union duties 3 Union work considered too time consuming 4 Not interested 5 Meetings at inconvenient times 6 Lack of childcare 7 Other 8 Domestic responsibilities 9 Meetings held in unsuitable places 9
The survey also examined solutions for encouraging more participation amongst black and minority ethnic groups.
The most supported ideas for encouraging participation focused on the issues raised in the reasons given by black members for becoming active fighting discrimination in the workplace and ensuring BME groups are represented.
81% of respondents strongly agreed that all workplace representatives should receive specific training to deal with racial discrimination in the workplace and bargaining around racial equality issues. 63% also strongly agreed that
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specialist race or equality officers are an effective way of promoting BME issues in the trade union movement. This reflects the apparent preference for black members to see discrimination in the workplace as a key union priority.
Over two thirds of black and minority ethnic members strongly agreed that black networks should be supported as they effectively encourage more BME members to become active and promote BME issues in the trade union movement.
BME members also expressed a desire to find out more about the size and location of black members in Scotland with 88% of respondents strongly agreeing that this is crucial to recruiting and representing more BME workers. This is clearly a important consideration for the trade union movement; we know that around a quarter of black and minority ethnic workers are union members across the whole of the UK. The table below shows UK union membership by ethnic group. However, on a Scottish basis, we have no knowledge on the size, location and characteristics of our black membership suggesting this is an area which the union movement in Scotland should look to address.
Table 8: UK Trade union density by ethnic group All Sex Full time/part time Men Women FT PT All employees 29.3 29.4 29.3 32.3 21.1 Ethnic group White 29.6 29.8 29.4 32.5 21.6 Mixed 20.8 22.7 19.3 24.1 * Asian or Asian 25.5 24.0 27.4 30.0 12.5 British Black or Black 30.1 27.1 32.6 35.0 13.5 British Chinese or 19.3 16.4 22.7 23.0 * other ethnic groups Source: Trade Union Membership 2003, DTI Employment Market Analysis and Research *Sample size too small to provide a reliable estimate
Other measures received less enthusiastic support from respondents. Almost half of respondents (47%) strongly felt that encouraging more BME members to become union learning representatives or health and safety representatives will encourage more black workers to be active suggesting that this may be a way of encouraging more black members to become active in their unions.
Some of the existing literature focuses on self-organisation for black members as a way of tackling their underrepresentation. A slight majority (44%) of respondents to the STUC survey strongly believed this was an effective way of encouraging more BME members to become active and to promote BME issues in the trade union movement. This response may be influenced by the fact that there are already some forms of self-organisation used by the STUC such as the Black Workers Committee and Annual Black Workers Conference. There may be unwillingness to go beyond these types of self-organisation as
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this could lead to marginalisation of racial discrimination issues rather than mainstreaming of these issues.
A number of strategies have already been considered as helpful in removing the barriers to participation. The STUC survey sought the value of such measures. These barriers looked at ways of increasing participation in branch meetings as well as encouraging black members to become activists.
Table 9: Effectiveness of strategies at removing barriers to participation, percentage of respondents voting very effective % Black Workers Committees 53 Black Workers Conferences 53 Mainstreaming equal opportunities 50 Specialist racial equality officers 47 Reserved seats for BME members 33 Childcare support/provision 31 Targeted literature (at BME members, on BME issues) 31 BME members only courses 19 Changing location/times of meetings 19
Again the most popular strategies were those aimed at addressing the specific needs of these members - through Black Workers Committees and Conferences as well as those supporting a wider anti-discrimination agenda for the union movement mainstreaming equal opportunities and specialist racial equality officers. Other measures, such as reserved seats for BME members, targeted literature and BME members only courses, received little support indicating the apparent preference amongst black and minority ethnic members for pursuing the equality agenda as a key union priority.
In addition to the strategies detailed in the table, there was some support for introducing a minimum BME presence in union forums and delegations as opposed to numerical proportionality. 47% of respondents strongly supported this with a further 40% agreeing that this would a potential strategy. This is notion is well supported as proportionality is likely to result in very tiny actual numbers of black leaders and therefore, is not appropriate as a way of giving voice to minority ethnic interests.
The Union Agenda
The respondents were asked about their top three union priorities for union members. As expected issues such as racial discrimination and equality and representation at all union levels were amongst the top priorities cited.
Table 9: BME members' union agenda Rank Discrimination in the workplace 1 Representation at all levels of union structures (including STUC) 2 Unions strongly supporting racial equality and fairness 3 Training and education 4 Unions willing to challenge discriminatory employers 5 Harassment (within and outwith workplace) 6=
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Immigration and asylum issues 6= Addressing inadequate career progression for BME members 6=
Some of the other priorities which were mentioned, but did not make it into the top priorities, include effective support of members who have faced discrimination, representation in public life and low pay.
All respondents thought that these top priorities should be part of the wider STUC agenda.
Recruitment
As with young people, part time workers and those working in the private sector, black and minority ethnic workers are being targeted as part of Unions Work campaign as key sector for increasing membership levels. 88% of respondents agreed that recruiting BME workers should be one of the top priorities for unions. Two thirds of BME members thought that the campaign to recruit black members would be most effective if BME recruiters were used reflecting the importance black workers place in being recognise that unions are able to address their needs.
Summary and recommendations for further action
The STUC survey of black and minority ethnic members generated some useful conclusions and recommendations for further action is this area.
Main conclusions from the survey:
· Black members gave greater importance than other groups to equality and fairness at work
· Racial discrimination as well as other forms of discrimination age, disability, equal opportunities for women are amongst the top union priorities for black members
· The major reasons for black members becoming active are related to addressing the needs of these workers and discrimination in the workplace.
Some recommendations arising from findings:
· 81% of black members strongly agreed that all workplace reps should receive specific training to deal with racial discrimination and racial equality bargaining
· Almost two thirds of BME members believe specialist race or equality officers effectively promote BME issues in the trade union movement
· Over two thirds of respondents believe black networks should be supported
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· 88% of respondents strongly agreed that finding out more about the size and location of Scotland's black trade union members is crucial
· Racial discrimination and equality and representation at all levels of union structures are the top priorities which BME members would like to see on the wider union agenda
· Campaigns to increase black workers would be most effective if BME recruiters were used.
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All data is Census 2001 unless otherwise stated 1
Scottish Executive (2004), "Analysis of Ethnicity in the 2001 Census: Summary Report", 2
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/social/aescr-00.asp 3 Scottish Executive (2004), "Analysis of Ethnicity in the 2001 Census: Summary Report",
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/social/aescr-00.asp 4 The economically active population includes all people of working age who are employed, those who
are not working but are looking for work and are available to start within 2 weeks (the unemployed) and full-students who are economically active. The economic activity rate is the ratio of economically active population to the working age population. 5 Scottish Executive (2004), "Analysis of Ethnicity in the 2001 Census: Summary Report",
http://www.scotland.gov.uk/library5/social/aescr-00.asp 6 Cabinet Office (2001), "Ethnic Minorities' Economic Performance" 7 CRE (1997), "Employment and Unemployment", CRE Factsheets 8 DTI (2004), "Trade Union Membership 2003" 9 DTI (2004), "Trade Union Membership 2003" 10 Metcalf, D, Hansen, K and Charlwood, A (2000), "Unions and the Sword of Justice: Unions and Pay
Systems, Pay Inequality, Pay Discrimination and Low Pay", Centre for Economic Performance, March 11 Anderson, T, Millward, N and Forth, J (2004), "Equal opportunities policies and practices in the workplace:
Secondary analysis of WERS98", DTI Employment Relations Research Series No.30 12 Waddington, J and Whitson, C (1997), "Why Do People Join Unions in a Period of Membership Decline?", British Journal of Industrial Relations, 34:4, pp515-546
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